NEPAL AFTER TEN YEAR

Nepal our great Nepal, know for peace and country of God and Godess has left it's influence and glory over the world which gives the whole a matter of thinking and sight. Nepal that deserves its own political, historical,geagraphical, cultural, social, religious significances and back ground had suffered various ups and downs, crossed various political instabilities unexpected, difficult circumstances. Present Nepal and Nepalese people are the outcome of their own struggle that had underwent suffering from cruel Ranas, various disasters, scarcity and deplorable condition. Nepal, a country of various possibilities and chances, can be one of the unique and strange country in the world if it is administered smoothly and systematically. It' very difficult to predict the situation of Nepal after 10 years. But having the glance over its present condition and it various possibilities, we can simply imagine guess and can form a sketch of Nepal after 10 years in our mind that may be either in excellence stage or worst stage. This is very good news for Nepal and their citizen that they are going to emerge in every sector of development. Their dream is going to be proceed. The present condition and the hard work of Nepalese gives the symbol of great change and choclates of great evolution. In every mind of Nepaleses dreaming the day after 10 years with hope of shine and light. In every mind of Nepalese is that Nepal will not rule for limit field of development but it's going to rule in every field and sector of development where world will see the embrance of greatness. The number of country(people from other country) migrates here and pay the tax further using of things. Nepal will be the shelter of refuge and other people who where affected by othe disasture. Road and transport will run in every corner of country and labour will have their own personality. They will get physically rest but mentally busy. People where full of creative, skilled and sensative. They will have full of freedom and able of thinking for new ideas. Scienctist where busy for new invention and country will run on remote. Nepal have their own settlite. Nepal will count in industrial and developed country would come here to take sign for their improvement in business.Every Nepalese where free from disease. Nepal would become as beauty as heaven and every Nepalese where angel of it. Nepal will be wounder after 10 years.

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AIDS is the burning problem of Nepal

AIDS(Acquired Immuno deficiency Syndrome)is one of the threatening and burning problems of Nepal. Due to the AIDS lots of people died every year in Nepal. Total death of people in Nepal is 50,000 while in the world more than 25 millions. AIDS is sexually transmitted disease and its mainly transmits through unsafe sexual contact with heterosexual partner. If we discuss the present condition of Nepal than it is very worse in every sector of development. Mostly child adopting western cultures. They are involves in drugs addiction. Poverty is the other problems of Nepal. If we talk about education than it is also not so good. Most of the people are illiterate and unhealthy. People of Nepal migrates to other country, mainly neighboring country (India) and they carry the gift from there as AIDS. First case detected in Nepal 1998. The number of HIV AIDS people increasing day by day in Nepal. The main cause of this is poverty, illiterate, drugs addiction, adopting western culture,poor strict rule,of government, interest in blue films, etc. The other source of infection is person suffering from HIV(Human immuno deficiency virus) AIDS. The causative agent are HIV-1 and HIV-2 which where contains single str.RNA virus which belongs to Retrovirus family which contains Revers transcriptase enzymes. Mode of transmission of HIV AIDS through mucus membrane(mainly genital mucosa), through cut in skin, crack in skin, sharing of needles, through body fluids containing HIV AIDS are bloods, semen, vaginal secretion, breast milk, amniotic fluids. The oretically saliva can also transmit the HIV AIDS but till now not seen any case in Nepal or in the world. The common routes of spreads of HIV AIDS are, unprotected sexual contact, HIV AIDS can transmits more in homosexual than heterosexual. But more case in heterosexual found in Nepal. There is 0.01 to 1% chance of transmission of HIV AIDS through unprotected sexual contact in Nepal. HIV AIDS also transmits through sharing of needles and transfusion of blood and its product. It have maximum possibility to transmits the HIV AIDS in Nepal. Mother can transmits to her baby during feeding, pregnancy, during delivery. HIV enter inside the human body and it destroy helper T-lymphocytes due to which patient becomes immuno compromised which invites opportunible disease and death is occurs. CD4 cells play role in maintenance of body immunity. AIDS is transmits stage of disease in which the patient presents with opportunistic disease like TB, Pheumonia, oral and vaginal ulcers. Most of the investigation like ELISH test, detection of antibody against HIV in blood, western blood test which is also known as confirmatory test, this detect viral proteins, HIV AIDS is not the completely curable disease but he life of patient can be prologed by using following drugs, zidoludine, lamivodine, neuirapine. The highly active Anti-retrovial therapy distributed free of cost by government of Nepal.

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THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

From time to time, various theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism of origin and evolution of new species. These include: LAMARCKISM Environment effect J.B. de Lamarck (1744-1829), a French naturalist, who introduced the word biology. He proposed the theory of 'Inheritance of Acquired Characters' in his book entitled Philosophic Zoologique. He was of the view that: Effect of use and disuse organ: Environment influences change of characters of and organism due to change in their needs e.g., in dry soil, the root system of a plant becomes more extensive than in wet soil; plants grown in shade develop larger leaves than those grown in open etc. Constantly used organs become highly developed and modified in response to needs,while those disused result in to degeneration. Lamarck cited the example of evolution of Giraffe, presumably from the ancestors having equal sized fore and hind limbs and a short neck. The Giraffe lived in African deserts, which have no vegetation except a few trees. Their continued efforts through many generation for getting food from high up foliage, resulted in to longer fore legs and much elongated neck. Similarly, the absence of limbs in snakes and presence of vestigial organs in animals have been explained by Lamarck on the basis of their disuse. Finally, the modifications which an organism acquires during its life time, gets inherited by its offsprings.

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ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Concept of evolution was given by Empedocle and Buffon. Trend of evolution was first explained by Lamarck. Lamarck: Father of evolutionary theories. Evolution means: Gradual change from simple to complex forms with the passage of time. Organic evolution of living beings. Term organic evolution is given by Herbert Spencer. Organic evolution can be defined as:' Adaptations through generations'. Inorganic evolution: Means evolutions of Non-living things eg. evolution of rivers, rocks, Mountains etc. Evolution is defined as historical and developmental race of organisms with variation. The main theme of evolution is Descent with modification i.e. docterine of desires. Biological meaning of evolution is gradual changes. The process of evolution is continuous but very slow, taking place even now. Main postulates of organic evolution are: Earlier organism were simpler. They gradually changed in to complex organisms. They are inter related because of common origin. They have common shelter and environment. Evolution is generally slow, continuous, irreversible and progressive. For evolution the most important requirement is variation. The ultimate source of organic evolution is mutation. The evolution of any species can be considered as a sum total of the species Adaptive changes preserved by natural selection. One of the most important factors of the development of a new species is the geographical isolation.

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Tuberculosis is a great problems of Nepal

It is a communicable chronic granulomatous disease. It is cosmopolitan in distribution. It is common in cigarette smoking tobacco chewing. It usually involves the lungs but may affect any organ or tissue in to the body. It is a very serious chronic bacterial disease. It is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is common in areas with unhygienic conditions. It parasite attacks lungs so called pulmonary tuberculosis. It includes meningitis, millary tuberculosis and involvement of bones and joints, lymph nodes, kidneys, intestine, larynx or skin. It attacks all age group but epidemics have been reported among mine workers, factory, garments and children in crowded classroom. It transmites patient with open lesions, air borne route, by the throat and nasal discharges of infected man, bovine tuberculosis result from tuberculous course and ingestion of unpasteurized of milk and their products. It incubation period is about 4 to 6 weeks. Serious manifestations develop, coughing,, chest pain, bloody sputum, low grade fever and sweating in the day and at night, loss of body weight, fatigue, hoarseness of voice etc. Diagnosis by roentgenogram is confirmed by demonstration of Tubercle bacilli in sputum or gastric washing, by stained smear, concentration and culture or animal inoculation. Treatment in order to avoid multi drug resistant TB, ministry of health has launched DOTS. It is based on six factors; rest, diet, drugs, surgery, rehabilitation and health education. Combination of antimicrobial drugs: Isoniazid, Streptomycin continued for one or more years. Prevention are isolation of TB patient, avoid smoking and working in dust, burning and buried of coughing and BCG vaccination protection.

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TYPHOID is being killer be careful

Typhoid is a bacterial disease characterized by a continued classical fever. It is world wide i.e. cosmopolitan in distribution. Due to poor sanitation. It is caused by bacillus bacterium called Salmonella typhi. It is commonly found in intestine of man, so typhoid fever is also called enteric fever. It mainly attacks in 1-15 years age group each year of 20% people. Typhoid fever is a protracted disease featuring bacteremai(first week). Widespread reticuloendothelial involvement with splenomegaly and foci of necrosis in the liver(second week). Ulceration of peyer patches with intestinal bleeding and ulceration (third week). Gall bladder colonization produces a chronic carrier state. Chronic infection also may affect the joints, bones, meninges and other sites. The causative agent is Salmonella typhi. This species is a major cause and common source of enterocolitis, producing localized mucosal disease in the ileum and colon. S. typhimurium is the archetypal organisms that invades peyer patches and produces local ulceration over massively enlarged lymphoid tissue. Life threatening systemic illness is the hallmark of S.typhi, where by small intestinal invasion leads to systemic dissemination. It transmites with direct and indirect contact with patient, with product of vehicles spread and contaminated food and water, raw fruits and vegetables, milk and milk product,beef, eggs and poultry. It incubation period is variable, average 2 weeks, usual ranges 1-3 weeks. Diagnosis is widal test come positive during second week. Treatment is antibiotics like Ampicillin and Chloramphencol. Prevention for it is protection, purification and chlorination of public water supplies, sanitary disposal of human excreta, screening and spraying insecticides, boiling of milk and dary products,health education,immunization,etc.

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Tobacco Smoking is being culture, nowadays in Nepal

Red Indians first started tobacco smoking in America. Sources of Tobacco Tobacco, whether smoked or chewed, causes addiction due to the presence of Nicotine. Tobacco is the dried leaves of the plant Nicotiana tobacum and Nicotiana rustica. Nicotine is the substance that causes addiction to tobacco. Smoke also contains carbon-mono-Oxide, polycyclic hydrocarbon like N-nitroso-dimethylene,Tar etc. Effects of Tobacco The polycyclic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic. The smoking produces Emphysema and bronchitis. In Emphysema the respiratory surface in the lungs is reduced due to degeneration of separation of alveoli. The N-nitroso-dimethylene is a carcinogen and cause lung cancer. About 95% of lung cancer-patients are smokers. Out of 10% smoke inhaled, only 1% is finally absorbed, and the addiction, therefore, takes a long time. The teeth are stained and bad breath causes discomfort to the others. Mouth cancer is commonly found among tobacco chewers. Nicotine is a stimulant and makes the condition of nerve impulse faster. It also causes tachycardia(Heart beat¡) and increase the secretion of adrenaline. In pregnant cowmen nicotine causes retardation of the growth of the foetus.

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Alcoholism be aware,near to the death

Alcoholic beverages are of two types: Fermented;e.g. Beer, Toddy and wine(Red or White). These beverages have low percentage (5-10%) of alcohol. Distilled Beverages; e.g. Rum, Whisky,Vodka, Gin and Brandy etc. Their alcohol content is around 40% or above. Ethyl alcohol is a colourless liquid produced from the fermentation of carbohydrates by Yeast. In medicine, alcohol is used as an antiseptic and a solvent. Effects of Alcohol The alcohol consumed in distilled beverage is ethyl alcohol. It is analgesic, anesthetic and sedative (depressant). Alcohol reduces sugar level in the blood. The effect of alcohol on the central nervous system (Brain and spinal cord) is as depressant. It reduces BP by causing dilation of blood vessels. The prolonged used of alcohol produces Hypertension and Coronary heart disease. It stimulates acid secretion in stomach and causes gastritis and peptic ulcers. Alcohol increases urine output by decreasing the secretion of ADH(anti duiretic hormone). Heavy drinks become dehydrated. Thirst, dry tongue and hangover are associated with effect of alcohol. The main target organ of alcohol is liver. In liver alcohol changes in to acetaldehyde which is utilize by the hepatic cell for energy production. Fatty acid start accumulating and fatty liver syndrome develops. The fibrous tissue makes liver inactive, and the cracks develop. This condition of liver damage is known as Cirrhosis. William shakespeare commented on the effects of alcohol on sexual behavior. It provokes the desire but it takes a was performance. It is a social evil and involves lot of expenditure. The inhibitions in the society are diminished and person may start anti social activities.

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Human Diseases(Introduction)

Drug Abuse It is a physical and mental(psychological) dependence on drugs.Such drugs are habit formation and in most of the case the drawl is difficult. The chemicals which alter the functioning of the body is called drugs. The drugs which affect the nervous system are called psychotropic drugs. These can be divided in to two broad categories. Narcotics: They are depressants and decrease the activity of nervous system. Stimulants: They increases the activity of nervous system. They psychotropic drug on the basis of their action can be divided in to 4 groups. Sedatives and tranquillizers: e.g . Barbiturates(used in sleeping pills), Valium, Diazepam. They depress the nervous activity and produce relaxation and calmness. They are anti anxiety drugs. They sedative cause drowsiness and induce sleep. The tranquillizers are mood elevators and reduce tension. They do not induce sleep. Opiate narcotics:e.g. Opium, Morphine, Pathedine and Heroin etc. They are also depressants and are the derivative of opium which is obtained from the pods of poppy plants. They do not induce sleep but are used for their analgesic effect. The addicted perso develops euphoria. Heroine has been completely banned. It is 20 times more potent than opium. Heroine causes physical dependence and the withdrawal symptoms are fits and convulsion etc. Morphine is 10% more potent than Opium. The brown sugar is also a morphine derivative. Atropine, obtained from the leaves of Atropa belladona, is used by Opthalmologists to dialate the pupil and paralyze the accommodation. If given internally, it is antagonistic to Morphine and opium. A homeopathic medicine Belladona is also obtained from the roots and leaves of this plant and has strong affect on nervous system. Stimulants: e.g. Amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, Methamphetamine. Hallucinogens: e.g. bhang, Charas, Ganja, Marijauna and LSD ETC.

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Classification of organisms

Two Kingdom system

Biologists divided the living world in to two kingdom: Plants and Animals. The two kingdom system of classification was also given by Linnaeus in 1758 and worked well for a long time.

Three kingdom system

A German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866) suggested a third kingdom Protista. He included unicellular protozoa and algae in it.

Four kingdom system
Four kingdom was developed by Copeland (1956). They are Monera, Protista, Plantae and Animalia. Monera includes Prokaryotes (bacteria and blue algae).

Five Kingdom System

An American ecologist Robert H. Whittaker proposed that fungi differ enough from other microorganisms to justify calling them a separate kingdom. This led to a five kingdom scheme of classification comprising Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Five kingdom classification based on:
- Complexity of cell.
- complexity of organisms
- mode of nutrition and
- major ecological role.
Whittaker scheme is still widely accepted as a logical classification of living things.

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History of Classification

Aristotle(384-322), the Greek philosopher, known as father of zoology made the first recorded attempt to classify the animals in his book Historia Animalium. Aristotle made two group: Anaima (animals with no red blood, invertebrates) and Enaima (animals with red blood, vertebrates). Enaima was further divided in to Ovipara and vivipara. John Ray, the naturalist was first to introduce and define the term Animal species. John Ray also developed the key for identification of animals. Linnaeus also recognized that different species could be grouped in to broader categories based on shared characteristics. Any grouping of organisms that shares a particular set of characteristics forms an assemblage called taxo. The term systematic, taxonomy and biologial classification are often used as synonyms. The term systematic was coined by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735. Taxonomy is the study of the principles and procedures of classification. The term taxonomy was proposed by the French botanist August Candolle for the theory of plant classification.

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Chemical Origin of life

Oparin(1922), a Russian bio-chemist opined that complex organic compound like carbohydrates, fatty acids, glycerol, aminoacids and proteins. These complex compounds resulted from the simple compounds under the influence of ultraviolet rays, ionizing radiations, electric charges and heat. Primitive stage of the sea water was called hot dilute soup by Haldane(1928)as it was rich in amino acids, fats and carbohydrates. Coacervates are the large organic molecules which were synthesized abiotically on primitive earth. Due to intemolecular attraction they formed large colloidal aggregates. They were capable of growth and division. Sydney fox(1964) called them microsphere and Oparin named them coacervates. Fox bye his experiments demonstrated the formation of proteinoids. There was then gradual origin of macromolecules(polymers) including nucleic acid, followed by origin of Genetic code and finally the giant molecules of nucleoproteins. These giant molecules could be compared to the presents day viruses and were termed as protovirus(The first living form). The first life appeared in marine water was called protovirus or eobiont or protobiont. It was anaerobic and chemoheterotrophic.

Miller and Urey
The theory of chemical evolution of life has been evidenced by the experiments of Miller and Urey. They provide the formation of carbohydrate and amino acids from a mixture of CH4, NH3, and H2o under the influence of electric discharges experiment about one week. The ratio of gaseous mixture in miller experiment was 2:1:2 (CH4, NH3 and H2).

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Biological Evolution (Oparin)

He suggested that the giant molecules must have undergone various types of combination forming the complex masses, so called coacervates. The enzymes have developed before the cells. Gradually, the gene aggregates because surrounded by enzymes which formed the cytoplasm. These enzymes could have combined the nitrogen bases, simple sugar and phosphates in to the nucleotides. Nucleotides might have combined to form DNA and RNA. The nucleoproteins marked the beginning of life. Formation of nucleoproteins is the most important event in the origin of life. Some protein fatty acids organized around the coacervates to form the surface membrane.

Some of it proteins differentiated in to enzymes. These processes must have culminated in the origin of ever first living cells. Many of the biologists do believe that life originated in sea. The first cell like structure were called eobionts or pre cell. Oparin called them Protobionts. These were perhaps similar to mycoplasma which gives rise to Monerans and protista. Monerans included prokaryotes like bacteria and cyanobacteria. The protesta gave rise to Eukaryotes that evolved in to protozoa,metazoa and metaphyta. then came up the saprophytes, chemosynthesizers and finally the photosynthesizers. This provides plenty of free oxygen to the primitive atmosphere leading to the evolution of aerobic mode of respiration.

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Origin of life

life is an inherent capacity that an organism posses to maintain and reproduce itself. most of the ideas on the origin of life fall in to either of the following four theories:

Theory of special creation

proposed by a Spanish monk, Father Saurez.This theory assumes that life was created by some supernatural power, beyond the analytic capacity of physics and chemistry. According to Christianity the Bible states that the creator formed all living organisms with in six natural days. Materia prima on first day, plants on the third day,fish and fowl on fourth day and animals including man on fifth day. according to Hindu mythology Brahma created various forms of life on one stroke. Manu and Shradha were first man and women on the earth.

Cosmozoic Theory or Theory of Panspermia

This theory is proposed by Richter and Arrhenius. The life in the form of resistant spores called panspermia reached to the earth accidentally from other planets and developed in to organisms.

Theory of Abiogenesis (Spontaneous Generation)

Von Helmont proposed that life in the form of simple organisms originated spontaneously from non living substances. Anaximander proposed the air as sole cause of life. Von Helmont proposed that mice will be developed when human sweat and wheat are kept together for 21 days. Like wise insects from dew, butterflies from the cheese and moggots from the decaying meat.

Theory of Biogenesis

This theory is proposed by Francesco Redi provided major set back to the Theory of Abiogenesis. On the basis of experiments, Redi concluded that flies arise only from the eggs laid down by parent flies, i. e, life can arise only from preexisting life. Louis Pasteur also supported theory of biogenesis through swan necked flask experiment and put forward by Redi. he succeeded in disapproving the spontaneous generation theory because he was ingenious in drawing out the neck of glass flasks so as to provide access of air but not to micro organisms. Pasteur was famous for germ theory of disease and immunology.

Modern Theory of origin of life

Proposed by Haeckel and evidence by the brilliant works of Oparin , Halden as well miller and Urey. The modern theories state that life arose on the early earth by series of progressive biochemical reaction. The entire process presumably involves the following sequence of events.

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Origin of earth

The age of earth has been computed to be about 4.6 billion years. The earth was initially supposed to have originated as a result of collapse and condensation of the interstellar clouds of gases and the dust, so called nebula. The present hypothesis proposed by Holy and Lyttleton (1939) suggested in to be a part broken off from the sun. It was though that: Originally the earth was a fiery spinning ball of hot gases, and vapours of various elements. The temperature was so high(about 5000-6000). The elements like hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen could not exist in free state, rather they combined variously to form oxides, carbides, and nitrides. Water and ammonia were probably the first compound molecules of primitive earth. Hydrogen combine with oxygen, nitrogen and carbon forming water, ammonia, methane, and cyanides. The temperature being very high, the various compounds existed in gaseous state, while water occurred as superheated steam. This constituted the primitive atmosphere of the primitive earth. With the gradual decrease in temperature, the gases must have been changed into liquid and then in to solids , whereas steam must have condensed in to water, ultimately resulting into rains. The rains on reaching the superheated earth immediately evaporated to the atmosphere. The repeated rain cycle for millions of years resulted in to gradual but ultimate cooling of the earth surface and formation of large water bodies like oceans and seas.

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Introduction of science

Science is derived from Latin word Scientia, means to know(knowledge). science is an organized and dynamic knowledge about natural phenomena with reference to various object of nature. scientific knowledge is based on repeatable observations, experimentation and interference derived from the same. science deals with natural phenomena. The various branches of science are called natural science. The scientific extension of human curiosity has given birth to the science of Biology.

Natural science
It is of two types;Physical and Biological

Physical science are branches of organized knowledge which are connected with structures, phenomena and forces of the non-living world.


biological or life science are branches of organized knowledge which deal with structure materials and forces of living beings.

Biology:The term biology is derived from Greek words bios logos. Bios,means life and logos means discourse.The science which deals with the study of structure, organization, life processes, interactions, origin and evolution and other aspects of living creatures is called biology. The term biology is synonym with the term life sciences or biological sciences.Aristotle is called father of Biology and Zoology. Term biology is given by Lamarck and Treviranus. A scientific approach in Biology includes; observation, formulation, of hypothesis, testing of hypothesis and development of theory. we study biology to understand ourselves better o meet our needs, to solve problems, out of curiosity, to get food, clothing and shelter, to maintain ecosystem and to conserve our nature resource etc. Biological science has been divided in to zoology and Botany.

Zoology:Zoology is the branch of biology in which we study or become familiar with the facts of animals life.
Botany:Botany is also know as phytology which deals with about plants.


Microbiology:It is a third branch of biology which deals with simpler, microscopic organisms.

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Environment of my surrounding

The term environment is related with our surrounding. Environment means the surrounding in which we live. The elements of our environment are sun, light, air, smoke, soil etc. In the case present time our environment is being polluted. Man is the main cause of this pollution. man is both construction and destruction for our environment. man plays great role in construction. there is interrelationship between man and environment. In the both case if one is effected then both have to suffer from great problem. Due to the daily activities and mischief human beings our environment being get polluted. If we were not take care of it in time then our surrounding and their elements get polluted and it shows great impact on living beings.

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